The anti-oxidant effect is especially relevant in white wines. Unsplash

Among the most common inquiries I receive from readers concerns preservatives in wine, in other words, sulphur dioxide (SO₂₎. Specifically, how to find wines that don’t have SO2 added to them.

They are not common, because SO2 is a sterilant and anti-oxidant: it preserves wine from oxidising and it kills or stuns unwanted microbes which could create unpleasant faults in wine.

The anti-oxidant effect is especially relevant in white wines. Just as an apple quickly turns brown when cut and exposed to the air, so white grape juice and white wine will brown and the freshness and fruity appeal of the aroma and flavour will be dulled.

Red wine is another matter: the tannins and colour pigments of red wine help protect it against the ravages of the oxygen in the atmosphere. So it’s easier to produce a good red wine without the help of SO2.

There are several readily available products that can be added to a glass of wine to nullify the SO2, and render it agreeable to those who suffer from sulphur sensitivity. SO2GO, and Purewine Drops are the two most visible. They’re inexpensive and are sold in many wine shops. You either squeeze some drops into your glass or spray the fluid onto it.

The active ingredient is hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which simply rearranges the molecules so that SO2 is deactivated. Sulphites are converted to sulphates, which are harmless.

The most common sensitivities to sulphites are sneezing, coughing, shortness of breath, headache, sinus problems and rashes. Purewine claim they have feedback from a ‘huge’ number of wine drinkers that their product reduces hangover symptoms. I’m not sure there is any scientific evidence for that, though.

Several wine companies make wine with no added sulphur dioxide. This is generally how they are described—because ‘sulphur-free’ can’t be guaranteed, as a small amount of sulphur dioxide can be produced by yeasts during normal fermentation.

Here are three quality red wines that have come my way recently.

Battle of Bosworth Puritan Shiraz 2024

McLaren Vale. I’ve tasted some aged vintages of this wine, and they put paid to the notion that wines made without sulphur won’t keep.

Mr Brightside GenX Preservative Free Shiraz 2025

From Ben Riggs of Mr Riggs Wines, McLaren Vale.

Sherrah Preservative Free Grenache Nouveau 2023

Winemaker Alex Sherrah also works in McLaren Vale.

December dining is about connection between people, between food and wine. Pexels

The festive season is upon us—that glorious stretch of late-year sparkle when the dining rooms are full, corks are flying, and someone always starts a round of bubbles before the mains hit the table. For those of us working the floor, it’s the best kind of chaos. The energy hums, the laughter carries, and every night feels like a small celebration.

And as the sommelier, I get a front-row seat to all of it—the triumphs, the stumbles, the surprises, and the joy that a perfectly chosen bottle can bring.

Here’s something I’ve learned after years of working the floor: the guests who have the best nights aren’t necessarily the ones who know the most about wine. They’re the ones who know how to delight their sommelier. And when that happens—when there’s a spark of trust and playfulness across the table—the whole night changes. The service loosens, the wine gets better, and suddenly it feels like everyone’s in on the same great secret.

So, as you head into party season, here’s my insider’s guide to making that magic happen.

Curiosity beats knowledge every time

You don’t need to be a wine expert to drink well. In fact, some of my favourite guests are the ones who admit “I don’t really know much, but I love crisp whites and light reds.”

That’s music to my ears. It tells me you’re curious and open. With just a few clues—what you’re eating, your mood, your budget—I can do the rest. My job isn’t to test you; it’s to translate your taste into something that’ll make your night.

In December, when everyone’s feeling festive and a little adventurous, curiosity is the best thing you can bring to the table.

You don’t need to impress me

This season can make people funny about wine lists. There’s always that table where someone wants to prove they know their burgundy from their barolo. But honestly? None of that impresses your sommelier. We’ve seen it all—the bluffing, the name-dropping, the dramatic sniffing and swirling.

What does impress me is authenticity. Say “We’re having steak and fish—what would you suggest that ties them together?” or “I want something special but not serious.”

That’s where the magic happens. When you invite me into the conversation, I get to do what I love most—connect the right wine to the right moment.

Trust me (and tell me the budget)

Trust is the currency of good service. When you tell me “We’d like something interesting around $120,” it gives me freedom. I can stop guessing what’s safe and start finding what’s perfect.

The festive season is when cellars get raided and rarities come out to play. If I know your price range and what you enjoy, I’ll reach for that bottle I’ve been saving for someone who’ll appreciate it—the left-of-centre gem that’ll light up your night.

I’m not trying to upsell you, I’m trying to surprise you. That’s the fun part.

Ask questions—you’ll get stories, not sales pitches

Every wine on the list has a story—and during the silly season, I’m in the mood to tell them. The family that still hand-picks their fruit. The winemaker who farms by moonlight. The vintage that nearly broke them but somehow produced magic.

When you ask “What makes this one special?” you’re not making small talk, you’re opening a door. I promise you’ll taste the wine differently once you know the story behind it.

December dining is about connection—between people, between food and wine. Asking questions is part of that rhythm.

Speak up

Sometimes a wine just isn’t what you hoped for—too rich, too light, too… something. That’s okay. I’d rather you tell me than sit there quietly while it gathers dust in your glass.

A simple “This isn’t quite what I expected—could we try something fresher?” is all it takes. You won’t offend me. You’ll actually make my night, because it means I get another shot at getting it right. That’s why our wine list says “Life’s too short to drink sh*t booze”.

The festive rush can be frantic, but good hospitality still runs on conversation—not guesswork.

Embrace the spirit of play

This time of year, everyone’s in the mood for a little fun—and so am I. Nothing delights me more than someone saying “Surprise us with something we’d never order.”

That’s my cue to bring out the good stuff: a pét-nat that tastes like sunshine, a skin-contact white that smells of apricots and attitude, or a chilled red that turns the table into a party.

Wine should be joyful, not intimidating. When guests lean into that sense of play, it transforms the room.

Respect the ritual

There’s a quiet theatre to wine service—and it’s worth leaning into. When I present the bottle, I’m confirming your choice, not demanding a nod of authority. When I pour a small taste, it’s to check the wine’s sound, not your sophistication.

So, relax. You don’t need to sniff, swirl, or compare prices with your local bottle shop. This is hospitality—a dance we do together. When it flows, it feels effortless.

Gratitude is contagious

The festive season is long and loud for hospitality staff. We’re on our feet for 12-plus hours, our voices hoarse from describing the same wines a hundred times over. But the exhaustion melts away when a guest looks up at the end of the night and says “Thank you—that was brilliant.”

You don’t have to flatter me to make my night. What really sticks is sincerity: “That pairing was perfect,” or “I’d never have picked that, but I loved it.”

That kind of feedback fuels my work more than any Instagram tag or big spend. Those are the guests I remember when something special comes in. And come January, when the festive fizz fades and the quieter months roll in, it’s those faces I look forward to seeing again.

Remember: my goal is your joy

At the end of the day, my job isn’t to show off what I know; it’s to make your night better. To read your mood, your meal, your moment—and find a wine that fits.

Delight your sommelier, and we’ll go the extra mile every time. Because when you give us that spark of trust and curiosity, it reminds us why we love this madness—the packed dining rooms, the laughter, the endless corks, and the quiet thrill of seeing someone take that first sip and smile.

The guests I’ll never forget

When people ask who my favourite guests are, it’s never the collectors or the critics. It’s the ones who come ready to enjoy themselves—who listen, laugh, and treat wine as something to share, not show off.

Those are the guests who get the off-list pour, the cheeky taste of something new, the whispered “I’ve got something you’ll love.”

Because engaging your sommelier isn’t about showing you know wine—it’s about showing you love the experience. And at this time of year, when every night feels like a celebration, that’s what makes the whole room sparkle.

Aerial view of vineyards in the Wairarapa wine region. Wairarapa Wine Region

Over the past month, I have had the pleasure and privilege to ask several Wairarapa winemakers for their opinions on the recent vintages in the region.

In the course of conversation, scattered details have emerged about the weather patterns and more importantly, how they affected the fruit and growing season. Collating this information and comparing it to the general trends in tasting notes on The Real Review, it has been possible to make some generalisations about the vintages which are currently in market and what to expect from them. Keep in mind the old adage that great producers can make good wine even in bad vintages and the opposite is also true.

2024

This is the current vintage for most producers and it is a very welcome season for almost the entire region. In the big scheme of things, it presents as a more neutral year with fewer extremes than have been seen in the past decade.

That said, the vintage was smaller in yield (2025 was more generous) and is characterised by the classic acid-retaining diurnal shift from cold nights to warmer temperatures during the day.

Some producers reported it being milder but noticeably dry. There is the thought that some of what happened in vineyards was due to the vines reacting and rebounding from the trials of the 2023 season. In pinot noir, there is a recurring theme in many of the better wines: a dense, almost plush, palate-coating purple fruit intensity, ripe and sleek tannins submerged under impressively concentrated fruit while also being elegant and flowing in the mouth.

There is a bit more weight and warmth in the northern Wairarapa wines than that found in Te Muna and Martinborough township, where the wines tend towards a bit more structure and detail.

2023

This was a La Niña vintage and was inevitably marked by the influence of Cyclone Gabrielle which clipped the region while sparing it the worst of its rains and floods.

That said, several producers, especially in Martinborough township and the land closer to the river in northern Wairarapa, reported that after the continual rain, the ground was unable to absorb more water and vines were visibly unhappy with wet feet. It was actually quite a warm vintage so ripeness was not out of the question, but it was also cloudy, humid and wet.

In Te Muna district, it was reported that grape skins were thicker than they expected and those who waited could pick some of the better fruit. On the whole, it seemed that vineyards in Te Muna were affected to a lesser extent than those ‘in town’. There are more mixed results further north depending on soils and drainage.

Several producers chose not to produce any of their top wines in 2023. What was made has more of a vintage character than is typical for the region. The best were able to harness the season’s precociousness, avoiding heavy extraction or firm structures, focusing instead on making wines which are more supple. They will not have the ageing potential of years like 2024, 2020 or 2019 but they have a delicacy and approachability which particularly suits pinot noir’s more ethereal side.

2022

This was a La Niña vintage after a string of El Niño years ending with 2021. This time there is a bit of a reversal and Martinborough Terraces generally performed better than the vineyards up in Te Muna. The rains close to vintage slowed things down and made life more difficult to manage for many vineyards, especially in the warmer northern districts.

The vintage started well, delivering a healthy flowering, which was a relief after the small crops and poor fruit set of 2021. Several growers reported that vegetative growth was more vigorous this year, which coupled with higher humidity and thinner skins on the berries, meant that vigilance was required in the vineyard to guard against fungal diseases. Ripeness levels were moving along well until shortly before the projected harvest when wetter weather and more humidity came in.

The success of each producer was highly dependent on decisions they made in the vineyard during the season and there is more variability in quality across the region due to these differences. Some excellent wines were made despite the variable quality and the difference between top and bottom was greater than usual.

On the whole, most producers considered 2022 a better year than 2023, though a few wineries in Te Muna district found 2023 either as good, or slightly ahead of 2022 for them.

Bottles sit on their yeast lees inside the caves at Champagne Pommery. Wikimedia Commons

Back in December (of 2024), we ran a piece on “Cool summer sparkling” which resulted in some feedback requesting an updated primer on different sparkling wine styles. Therefore, this piece will cover the styles discussed: méthode traditionnelle, Charmat/Martinotti method, transfer method, Asti method and méthode ancestrale or pétillant naturel.

For reference, méthode traditionnelle is used in Champagne, Crémant, Sekt Austria Reserve, Winzersekt (and therefore VDP.Sekt) Cava, Franciacorta and wines inspired by them outside of Europe. Charmat/Martinotti, also called the tank method, is usually the method used for Prosecco (not always, though).

Transfer method is not used by default anywhere but is more commonly used in areas without strict production laws as a compromise between méthode traditionnelle (to gain the lees-aged characteristics and finer bubbles) and the tank method (which is much easier to bottle as it does not require disgorgement).

Asti is self-explanatory as the wines contain that name; e.g. Asti DOCG and Moscato d’Asti (which is lower alcohol and sweeter).

Pétillant naturel or Pet Nat wines are often labelled as such, with Bugey Cerdon AOC being a classic example of méthode ancestrale (most others include the term on the label so are easy to identify).

For the purposes of this exploration, I would like to invite you to approach it from a different perspective than the traditional study of step-by-step winemaking processes and think instead of a few branching decision points which have the most impact on the final wine.

First of all, for bubbles to happen, carbon dioxide has to be dissolved in the wine. The absolute cheapest method is to directly inject CO2 into the wine under pressure, and although it is used for some bulk styles of wine, it is not really relevant to this piece as most wine we review would not fit into that category. Therefore, we mainly concern ourselves with wines where the CO2 has occurred as a result of fermentation. This means that the fermentation has to happen under pressure, otherwise the CO2 would simply all escape.

We can divide the world of sparkling wine variously along two lines related to either:

1. Whether the fermentation responsible for this CO2 occurs during primary or secondary fermentation; and
2. The vessel used for that fermentation step.

For the first question primary fermentation methods derive their CO2 from sugar in the unfermented or partially fermented grape juice, therefore encompassing most pét nat or méthode ancestrale wines and all Asti-method wine. CO2 resulting from a second fermentation requires that a source of sugar is reintroduced (again, some pét nat or méthode ancestrale wines, all transfer wines, Charmat/Martinotti method wines and méthode traditionnelle).

We then split that further (using the second question mentioned above) into wines where the fermentation occurs in a tank; i.e. Charmat/Martinotti and Asti method; or in bottle, which basically covers all the others, including the transfer method.

The table below might help with visualising these distinctions.

As you can see from the table above, there are other considerations which play a role in determining the overall flavour balance of a sparkling wine, arguably a more important distinction to a drinker than dividing it along academic winemaking branches. These are the presence or intensity of ageing characteristics like yeast lees autolysis, oak influences and bottle development. These all require specific things to happen before they can occur and once you understand the CO2 source and vessel, it is easy to figure out which of the styles are most associated with these flavour profiles.

Oak influence is reserved for wines which complete primary fermentation before being bottled, ruling out all the primary ferment CO2 wines. Pet Nat has a *special exception because some experimenting winemakers might play around with oak in a pet nat before bottling it, but it is very unusual to see.

Yeast autolysis and dominant primary fruit characters are often at opposite ends of the spectrum, this is because the presence of those aged autolytic notes require ageing for extended periods, which usually results in a reduction of intense primary fruitiness. Autolysis characters are also much milder if the second fermentation occurs in tank as the wines are simply not held on their lees for long enough for it to make much of an impact.

The amount of contact between wine and the yeast lees is also proportionally higher in a bottle than in a large tank. Therefore, méthode traditionnelle wines have the most notable ageing characteristics such as biscuity flavours, brioche and toast and tank method wines rarely exhibit them. Again, pet nat wines can have yeast flavours as a *special exception, but usually because of the presence of yeast in the bottle you are drinking out of (if not disgorged).

In its most basic form, pétillant naturel or pet nat, and méthode ancestrale wines are bottled before they finish fermenting so they are considered bottle-fermented primary ferments. This also means that most pet nat wines do not have any residual sugar remaining after fermentation and there is no dosage added to these wines so they should be completely dry.

One thing to note about calling them primary ferments, in reality, things are not actually quite that simple and pet nat producers from the Loire Valley—and as a result, those who are watching what is happening there—have modified the method so they are letting wines finish fermentation to stability and then adding unfermented grape juice before it goes to bottle, essentially making something half-way between what we traditionally consider pet nat and méthode traditionnelle. This is made even murkier (forgive the pun) by the rising number of pet nats which are disgorged.

Yes, the world of wine is dynamic and ever-changing, which makes it so frustratingly confusing, but also so delicious.

Glossary

Disgorgement

This is the process by which the spent yeast cells in bottle-fermented sparkling wine are removed, allowing the wine to achieve a clearer appearance and stop further flavour contribution from those yeast lees.

Autolysis

This word is usually used to refer to the flavour of brioche, pastry and toast from ageing for extended periods (years) on the spent yeast lees in bottle after secondary fermentation has finished. This is a slightly simplistic explanation as the flavours are often a result of a more complex process involving low-temperature Maillard reactions, but that’s outside the remit of this primer.

Dosage

Colloquially used to refer to the amount of sweetness in sparkling wine, which can be expressed in grams per litre of sugar or using one of the dosage terms like Brut, Extra Brut etc. Technically, dosage should only refer to a liqueur d’expedition added as the last step of production, but it is often also applied incorrectly in much wine media to refer to residual sugar and vice versa, so be aware that there may not be any meaning implied by its use, depending on where you see it written.

Understanding a champagne label can be somewhat mystifying. Wikimedia Commons

Understanding a champagne label can be somewhat mystifying to the uninitiated. Help is at hand! What follows is a glossary, a key to sweetness levels, and a list of producer types.

Glossary of terms found on Champagne labels

Sweetness levels

NB: These numbers are for residual sugar (RS). Technically, this is different from dosage. Dosage is the sweetening that is added to a bottle with the topping-up wine after it’s been riddled and disgorged, and before the final cork goes in. But the wine in the bottle may contain some residual sugar left over from the secondary fermentation, which will add to the analysable residual sugar in the finished wine.

Types of Champagne producer

There are many ways a champagne wine might be produced. Some wineries buy grapes in and some don’t buy any, while most do both. The various producer types are declared on labels using a code.

Even the base level of champagne is now a luxury. Pexels

In partnership with The Drinks Business. Writer: Patrick Schmitt MW. 

Following an extensive blind tasting for the Champagne Masters last month, Patrick has picked out his top 10 current trends in champagne style.

In essence, these were the findings—sometimes revelations—that he drew having tasted more than 100 bagged-up samples, covering a wide array of expressions—from niche labels to big brands, from brut nature to demi-sec, and from blanc de blancs to pure pinot fizz.

1. Sugarless champagne can be outstanding

Firstly, one aspect to champagne today is that low-dosage, even completely sugarless champagne, can be balanced in character. In several instances during the blind tasting this year, it turned out that the cuvées either had very little sugar or were brut nature, and yet they weren’t lacking in terms of mouthfeel and drinking pleasure. I’m sure that a few years ago, such champagnes would have finished with a hard, sometimes tart taste—or, indeed, with oxidative characters, perhaps because the winemaker had ditched the antioxidant sulphur dioxide along with the sugar when topping up the champagne with wine following the disgorgement process.

2. Champagne tastes riper

Linked to the more appealing nature of sugarless fizz, is the riper and richer taste of champagne today. Many will believe that this is a product of a warming climate—and it is in part—but it’s also a result of winemaking changes. I found myself noting more often than not the presence of yellow fruit in the champagnes this year, peach and pineapple in particular, as opposed to green apple and bitter lemon.

That is doubtless a product of riper grapes, itself a function of a more benign climate in the Champagne region, as well as lower yields and better viticulture. As for the richness, that comes from longer lees ageing times—as well as extended post-disgorgement resting—along with more reserve wines (in non-vintage cuvées). Overall, such changes are for the better and require lower dosages—explaining the balanced nature of increasingly dry champagne.

3. Non-malo champagne is hard to perfect

In contrast to the trend towards generosity in terms of palate weight and fruit ripeness, there were a few examples where the champagnes seemed hard, even tart, and a touch green. I later found out that such samples were those where malolactic fermentation had been blocked.

It seems to me that Champagne is yet to produce fruit ripe enough to suit such a style, unless the base wines are really rich or destined for especially long ageing, on and off the lees. In my view, allowing the wines to go through malolactic brings an appealing creaminess to the fizz that suits those lower dosages mentioned above.

Indeed, the problem may be that non-malo styles have been allied to low dosages, and it would be better to choose one or the other to yield fresh-tasting fizz: in other words, a standard dosage with a non-malo cuvée or an extra brut where the malolactic conversation is desired. Another technique—favoured by non-malo maison Besserat de Bellefon—is to lower the pressure, which brings finer bubbles to the champagne, and therefore a creamy texture, not an aggressive-feeling fizz.

4. Oak use is on the up

I believe an element to champagne-making that is bringing an appealing and complexing element to cuvées is the gradual return to using oak vessels for the fermentation and/or ageing of base wines. Often employed for reserve wines, it seems that the oak imparts a roundness to the wines and possibly some fine and appealing tannin too. Such an influence may also explain why lower-dosage champagnes don’t appear as firm as they did a decade ago.

Primarily, however, the use of a small proportion of oak-influenced wines brings another layer of interest to champagne which, generally, is becoming more complex due to the greater and more varied components in a blend—sometimes due to sourcing over a wide area but, in the majority of cases, due to the greater range of reserve wines used in multi-vintage blends.

5. Heatwave harvests can yield age-worthy champagne

It is my belief that one should not fear unusually ripe vintages in Champagne, nor dismiss them as incapable of ageing gracefully. I say that after tasting a host of first-rate vintage offerings from the hot and dry 2015 harvest, the record-breaking heatwave year of 2018, and an exciting taste of the extreme 2003—a bottling now more than two decades old and still lively and delicious (yet written off at the time as being overripe).

Indeed, if I am to name my personal favourite champagne of the competition, it would be the fizz from that latter anomalous harvest: Moët & Chandon Grand Vintage Collection 2003. If you want to experience what long-lees-aged Champagne can taste like from a heatwave harvest, then this provides a delicious insight—albeit an expensive one.

6. Clear glass bottles carry a risk

Sixthly, on a negative note, in this year’s competition, as last year, there were a few high-priced champagnes that did not win medals and therefore do not feature in our report. Why did they fail to make the grade? They had sulphurous aromas—like cabbage water in a couple of cases. At the time, I marked them down as fine champagnes that had possibly suffered from light-strike, which can yield these unpleasant characters in fizz.

Later, I checked the bottles and found—as expected—that they were housed in clear glass. In both cases, they were blanc de blancs, a style that has become associated with transparent packaging due to the success of Ruinart Blanc de Blancs in its beautiful, bulbous, clear bottle (which was not in the tasting). While I can understand the commercial reasons for wanting to house champagne in clear glass (it looks so enticing) all I will say is that it does come with a risk: that of a disappointed consumer.

7. Rosé can be a serious champagne

Pink champagne appears to be getting better, while there is little consistency in appearance. In terms of quality, this category of champagne used to be the most disappointing—with high-priced cuvées attracting just OK scores.

Today, some of these pretty champagnes are really serious sparkling wines. In terms of look, while still rosé now almost entirely looks like its Provençal template, with the pale hue of poached salmon, when it comes to champagne, some are a delicate copper in colour, others almost translucent ruby.

This lack of standardisation is exciting—a wine should not be judged on its appearance, and some of the darker rosés are exceptional. If they were in the still wine category, they would struggle commercially. I suppose it helps that a lot of great pink champagne is sold in green glass, just with pretty, colourful labels to signal their style.

8. Blancs de noirs are much better

I’ve always thought champagne needs at least a generous dollop of chardonnay to be really delicious, but increasingly, I’m changing my view. Why? Blanc de Noirs are so much better than they once were. They are often just as refreshing as blancs de blancs, yet with more apple richness—as opposed to citrus bite—and lovely, toasty, autolytic notes too, as well as appealing, smoky, reductive characters in some cases.

It did help that the blancs de noirs we tasted this year weren’t from the entry level but vintage and prestige cuvée expressions. In other words, they should be good. Nevertheless, making champagne just with red grapes need not be seen as a restriction on quality.

9. Blanc de blancs is the ultimate pre-dinner fizz

Blancs de blancs still represent a reliable, finely-crafted aperitif. Indeed, this style offers the ultimate pre-dinner fizz, with a chalky-citric-toasty combination that provides immediate palate-cleansing appeal. More producers of this style seem to be striking this lovely balance of grilled nuttiness with linear freshness. Meanwhile, the dull, buttery characters that can be found in pure chardonnay champagnes, particularly with a bit of age, seem to be far less common.

10. Champagne is turning up the tannins

Finally, champagne is becoming more phenolic, particularly the brut NVs. I have noticed more often in my notes that I’m recording the presence of tannins in the wine. In most cases, they are fine, giving a dry, chalky sensation to the finish, which in my view adds appeal—not only making the mouth water, but also increasing the versatility of the fizz: a bit of fine-grained texture to champagne helps clean the palate if one is having something to eat with the drink. After all, when fizz is served as an aperitif, it’s rarely without something to munch on, even if it’s just some crisps.

In essence, champagne is riper, richer, better, a touch chewier, as well as more complex and drier. It’s also more expensive. And I have to say that I was somewhat amazed to see how many of the grandes marques we tasted in the brut NV category were over GBP £50. In other words, even the base level of champagne is now a luxury. Thankfully, it tastes like one.

First published in The Drinks Business. Patrick Schmitt MW (Apr 2, 2025). Top 10 style trends in Champagne.

Much has been written about the changes in wine consumption over the past few years, particularly regarding the impact this has on the Australian and New Zealand wine industries. Don’t worry, this is not going to be another one of my usual economic analysis pieces with reams of export, sales and production statistics. We’re just going to have a ‘chat’.

In a global sense, drinkers appear to be shifting away from big, oaky, warm-climate red wines towards lighter, lower-alcohol and less woody red wines—the reverse of the trends created by ‘internationalisation’ (or Parkerisation, in some circles) around the late 1990s until the early 2010s.

Just as chardonnay had moved away from buttery, oaky and ripe ‘cake-like’ styles in the late 2000s, the abundance of ripe, alcoholic vintages from 2009 onwards has coincided with the rise of several movements towards more transparent, lighter and more refreshing red wines; including the natural wine and new wave movements. At the top of the mountain sits pinot noir, the ultimate lighter red, epitomised by the dominance of red Burgundy in all fine wine markets, toppling Bordeaux from its long, comfortable reign.

This preference for lighter reds over the past 15 years has also paved the way for the rapid ascendance of gamay, particularly Beaujolais; the crisp and refreshing cabernet francs of Anjou and Saumur; a resurgence in less ‘international’ styles of sangiovese; rediscovery of many fragrant Italian red varieties as well as the Peloponnese’s agiorgitiko; the rise of Etna reds and Galician mencia and increasing international interest in fresher iterations of blaufränkisch, zweigelt and even Hungary’s kadarka.

The Australian alternative varieties movement, with its associated wine show (AAVWS) seems prophetic in its wisdom as it is developing in step with the move away from big ripe shiraz wines. Pinot noir-focused regions like those in southern Victoria, Tasmania, Adelaide Hills and cooler parts of New South Wales have also stepped in to the gap left as the tides of fortune recede from the warmth of the Barossa and the irrigated engine room of the Big Rivers. The excitement over new wave styles of grenache, such as those from McLaren Vale, are emblematic of the move towards more elegant, less brutalist styles.

In New Zealand, pinot noir is by far the largest red variety planted, though it pales in comparison to the sea of sauvignon blanc. According to retail figures, sauvignon blanc still has the largest share of the market, even domestically. However, if we shift to on-premise sales, the numbers are entirely different.

Restaurants, especially premium venues, do not see sauvignon blanc in a prime position any more. Pinot noir, chardonnay and sparkling wine dominate sales. If we change the metric to total value, it is even more stark as drinkers are willing to pay much more for these styles of wine than they are for sauvignon blanc.

The other interesting shift lies in what is happening outside the top three: syrah, especially cooler-climate styles, rather than shiraz, has grown over the past decade and (depending on the venue) is either catching up to—or has leapfrogged—the Bordeaux varieties (the cabernets and merlot). Part of this is because syrah fills in the gaps between pinot noir and the bigger reds, but it is also approachable younger than classic Bordeaux-style blends.

Aotearoa’s climate does not lend itself to ripening grenache reliably (neither is there much planted), but increasing demand for Loire-inspired cabernet franc, gamay and sangiovese has resulted in expanding interest in these varieties among younger producers.

Lastly, it bears remembering that just looking at an ‘overall trend’ does much disservice to a granular understanding of the complex wine buying market. If you were to dig deeper into the numbers (which I have promised not to do today), it is clear that older drinkers are continuing to buy and almost single-handedly support the producers of bigger reds. Those who are still adding to their collections are also spending more on these wines than they were previously.

However, that interest is not translating to the younger demographic of drinkers, which is what the industry is looking at in the long term for sustainability. In general, the younger generations are drinking less or not drinking at all, and when they do, their motivations can often be different, including fewer social drinking occasions, more approachable wines, and lighter more refreshing styles, as mentioned above.

All of this does little to lessen the pain left by producers who are located in climates which were chosen for their ability to make big, ripe and oaky reds, but the shift towards a new equilibrium started many years ago and it looks unlikely to revert in the near future.

How you will react to a shiraz depends on your expectations. Pexels

The title of this article could easily be ‘How to taste any wine like a pro’. Assuming the title also means ‘how to taste shiraz critically’ we can offer a few tips that are specific to shiraz—Australia’s number one grape variety and the wine we are most closely identified with internationally.

At the risk of sounding like click bait (and aren’t you sick of those headlines that promise how to rid the entire world of every known problem, and then fail to deliver?) please stick with me!

Firstly, how you will react to a shiraz depends on your expectations. And shiraz has many faces, so this will depend on your prior experience of shiraz and your own personal desires and expectations.

Let’s walk through the tasting process, step by step.

Colour/appearance

Australian shiraz will normally have a deep, dark colour, and when young it has a bright purple meniscus when you tilt the glass to allow the light to penetrate it, the better to reveal its hue and clarity. A young shiraz without purple tints is probably going to taste older than it should, or at least to lack freshness. Bear in mind that the cooler the climate where the grapes were grown, the lighter the colour may be, and this is not necessarily a negative.

A Clonakilla shiraz from the Canberra District is usually lighter in colour than a Penfolds Bin 28 from warm areas of South Australia. Shiraz that’s been fermented with some whole bunches may have a slightly lighter and more advanced colour, which is not necessarily a negative. A slightly turbid appearance can mean the wine has not been filtered prior to bottling (not necessarily a negative), or it may mean there is a fault, such as microbial activity (potentially a major problem!).

Bouquet

Bouquet is the word usually applied to a wine with some development (age); aroma is usually applied to young wines. But the two are interchangeable.

Intensity is at once apparent from the nose: is the wine expressive or not? Fresh or tired? Clean or dirty?

Does it smell like shiraz? (here, experience is needed). The cooler the grapegrowing climate, the more spicy a shiraz will smell. Pepper indicates a very cool region or vineyard. Various other spices can come into play: clove, cinnamon, nutmeg, cassia, allspice, fivespice, ginger, turmeric, liquorice and aniseed. The fruit aromas are more likely to be red than black—think red cherry, raspberry, plum and blueberry. Floral notes of rose and violet can appear, as can herbal notes of mint or eucalyptus.

The warmer the climate where the grapes were grown, the less spice is likely and the more chocolate, vanilla, mocha (a mix of chocolate and coffee), and savoury notes of toasted nuts, clean leather, earthy notes and of course the fruit aromas which are likely to be darker—think blackberry, black plum, mulberry, even cassis.

Mineral nuances such as crushed rock, fresh-turned earth, ironstone, wet clay…

Is it fresh? If the wine is young, it should be fresh; if aged, it can be expected to have less freshness and primary fruit, and more ‘developed’ characters and hopefully complexity (roasting meats, roasting pan aromas, meat or mushroom stock, dried meats/bresaola, truffle, cigarbox). Only experience will tell you how much of each group of aromas is correct. An older wine that still has freshness and primary fruit is especially desirable. Cheaper wines destined for earlier drinking may develop more quickly than wines intended to age.

Is it free of obvious faults? The bouquet is where faults are first detected and often most obvious. Experience and some training are necessary to detect faults with assurance.

Is it attractive? No experience is needed for this. Most people will agree on what smells appealing. It is subjective and hence is often underplayed in a judging situation, but it’s probably the most important aspect of wine. Does it make you want to drink it?

Palate

The same subheadings apply as for ‘Bouquet’ above.

In a sense, what follows is true for both bouquet and palate.

Is it attractive? There is surprising agreement among both experienced and inexperienced tasters as to what feels and tastes good. Some things about aesthetics are hard-wired. Do you want another sip? Another glass?

Intensity: Most formal wine judging places great importance on intensity. The more intense, on nose and palate, the higher the potential for a good score. But intensity alone doesn’t guarantee a good shiraz. It’s stating the obvious, but intense flavour is no good if the flavour is unappealing.

The opposite of intense could be dilute, which may be due to over-cropped vines, or a host of other factors. But, warning: dilution and lightness are not the same thing. There are many shirazes that have concentrated flavour, but these can be hard work, especially when very young: they usually take time to mature and show their true glory. A young shiraz that is lighter in body and less powerful may give more pleasure than a very concentrated and powerful shiraz. The latter need time and are often released to the market too early for immediate drinking.

Length: Palate length, or persistence of flavour, is another parameter of quality. The longer the flavour endures on the palate after the wine has left, the higher it rates. Dilute wines from high-yielding vineyards seldom have length. Grapes with good fruit concentration make wines with persistence. This is not so important with, say, sauvignon blanc, but it is with shiraz.

Is it balanced? We can talk about many balances in shiraz red wine—the key ones being tannin, acid, oak and alcohol. Is the tannin in balance with the body weight and fruit intensity? Are the tannins good tannins? Are they fine-grained, powdery, silky, or are they coarse and clunky? A lot of tannin could mean the wine is made to be cellared, or made to go with hearty food with protein (protein softens tannins). Lighter shiraz is easily unbalanced by excessive tannin, whereas big wines can accommodate more tannin.

Is the oak balanced? This is often a matter of ‘house style’. Some shirazes tend to carry a lot of oak which is most obvious when they’re young. But these wines can develop into very complex mature wines, given time. They must have the depth of flavour, concentration and extract to balance the oak, otherwise they will remain unbalanced into old age.

Cool climate shiraz from southern Victoria, Tasmania or the Adelaide Hills and higher parts of NSW and the Canberra region, will usually be lighter in weight, spicier and more aromatic, perhaps higher in acidity (although this should never be too obvious in a red wine).

It’s currently fashionable to include some whole bunches (including stems) in the fermentation of shiraz, as it is with pinot noir. This can increase the spectrum of aromas and flavours and improve texture, but like everything else, it must be balanced. Excessively stalky aromas and greener flavours are usually not favoured.

Ripeness: Lack of full fruit ripeness is a bigger issue with other grapes than shiraz, which in Australia rarely shows underripeness (greenness). This is manifested in vegetal flavours, sharp acidity, thinness of body and tannin astringency. Overripeness is more often encountered, although some winemakers deliberately go for overripe flavours in quest for opulence. Extreme overripeness leads to loss of freshness and vibrancy, jammy or porty characters and a tiredness or staleness that is often referred to as ‘dead fruit’ character. There is often excessive alcohol with these wines, giving them a ‘hot’ finish.

Elegance: Elegance is like beauty: when you’ve seen (or tasted) it, you instinctively recognise it. Elegance is about balance, harmony, symmetry. It’s not try-hard; it leaves an impression of effortlessness. Shiraz may have an image for being big, bold and brassy, but it can also have elegance.

A final word: sign up for a tasting course. There are many of these, often hosted by retailers and sommeliers. Face-to-face instruction is the best way to learn about tasting.

Shiraz and syrah are the same grape variety. Wikimedia Commons

This is a common question which gets asked early in a wine drinker’s journey and there are two ways to answer it (which produces two answers!).

Factually, there is no difference, the grape variety which is called shiraz in Australia is the same variety as syrah. It took on this name because of how hand-writing was interpreted in the early days of viticulture in Australia.

The Busby collection had syrah vines with hand-written labels which read Scyras and Ciras (in botany and horticulture, grape variety names are capitalised as a rule, but most newspapers and magazines choose not to). Early documents in Australia actually refer to the grape as Scyras, alongside the more common moniker of the time of Hermitage which suggests that grapegrowers and winemakers knew that it was the same as the syrah grape of France’s Hermitage region.

There are many disputed stories regarding how those were anglicised to ‘shiraz’, including some which tried to tie its origins to the Iranian city of Shiraz. It is possible that scyras was simple assumed to be shiraz because of their visual similarity, and the name stuck. There is evidence to suggest that there were wines called Shiraz (after the city, just as there are wines called Port after Oporto, etc) but they are unlikely to have been made from syrah.

Genetically, syrah is most likely to have originated in France because it is the natural crossing of dureza and mondeuse blanche. These varieties are native to the Ardèche and the Savoie respectively, which makes it very logical for syrah to have emerged in the Rhône-Alpes region. This makes any of the legends involving the Phoenicians or Crusaders bringing the variety from Shiraz in Iran highly unbelievable, especially as there is no archeological evidence of the vine anywhere along the way (or even at the point of supposed origin) which fits chronologically into any of those stories.

The other way of viewing this question is to consider the wines labelled syrah against those labelled shiraz. Taking this into account, there are discernible distinctions, as the two names have naturally gravitated towards different styles of wine.

Shiraz, which is mainly used in Australia with historical support from South Africa (less so these days), is a warmer climate style of wine; weightier, riper, usually higher in alcohol and with a sweet, dark fruit leaning towards blackberries and black plums. Syrah on the other hand is strongly affiliated to its Northern Rhône origins and is used in cooler-climate and more temperate wine regions where perfume, floral notes and peppery spice are sought after.

New Zealand toyed with shiraz briefly (now-defunct winery Kemblefield in Hawke’s Bay used to label it shiraz) before swinging firmly to the French naming of the variety. There are also some producers in Australia who choose to use syrah on their labels instead of shiraz as a stylistic choice.

So in short, yes, they are the same grape variety, but at the same time, a wine labelled syrah will taste quite different than one labelled shiraz. Isn’t wine a complex, delicious mess?!

All wines for the tasting papers are served blind. Institute of Masters of Wine

Each June, candidates for the gruelling Master of Wine exams congregate at one of the three exam centres around the world to undertake what is often called the hardest wine examination in the world.

In mid-June, the questions (and wines) are made available to the wider wine world. The tasting papers are all blind and candidates not only have to identify what the wines are, they also have to decipher clues about the winemaking, talk about the quality levels of the wines (including their legal quality levels) and discuss commercial variables such as price, positioning and market potential.

Paper One is for white wines, Paper Two for reds and Paper Three is called the mixed paper but is usually where you will find sparkling, sweet and fortified wines. The aim of the examination is not so much to guess what the wine is but to be able to explain clearly in the time given (2 hours and 15 minutes) how that conclusion was made and why it couldn’t be something else.

The five theory papers are a different thing entirely, with candidates being asked to answer a selection of questions from two sections (which ensures that candidates must tackle at least one of the ‘important’ section questions per paper). These fall generally into Paper One for viticulture, Paper Two for winemaking, Paper Three for finishing processes, QA/QC and international shipment of wines. Paper Four pertains to the global business of wine and Paper Five is contemporary issues. Unlike the tasting papers, candidates can have three hours to complete the theory papers. The exams are run across the span of five days so there are three days during which candidates have to sit both a tasting exam and a theory exam in the same day.

I have highlighted a few in bold which I find of particular interest!

Paper One: The White Wine Paper

1. Château de Fieuzal Blanc, 2021. Pessac-Léognan, France
2. Sauvignon Semillon Circa 77, Xanadu, 2023. Margaret River, Australia
3. Chablis 1er Cru Côte de Lechet, Domaine Defaix, 2010. Burgundy, France
4. Chardonnay, Old Stage, 2019. Monterey, California, USA
5. Chardonnay, Iona, 2022. Elgin Highlands, South Africa
6. Chardonnay, Moss Wood, 2023. Margaret River, Australia
7. Muscadet Sèvre-et-Maine Monnières Saint-Fiacre l’Ancestrale, Vignobles Günther-Chéreau,
   2018. Loire, France
8. Riesling Silberberg de Rorschwihr, Rolly Gassmann, 2021. Alsace, France
9. Vouvray Côte de Bourg Demi-Sec, Domaine Huet, 2022. Loire, France
10. Riesling Flussterrassen, Grans-Fassian, 2022. Mosel, Germany
11. Rioja Blanco Gran Reserva, López de Haro, 2014. Rioja, Spain
12. Vin Santo del Chianti Rufina, Selvapiana, 2015. Tuscany, Italy

Paper 2: The Red Wine Paper

1. Chinon Les Barnabés, Olga Raffault, 2021. Loire Valley, France
2. Cabernet Franc, El Enemigo, 2021. Mendoza, Argentina
3. Toscana IGT “Aranum”, Tenuta di Arceno, 2018. Tuscany, Italy
4. Gigondas, Chateau de Saint Cosme, 2022. Rhone Valley, France
5. Crozes-Hermitage “Papillon”, Gilles Robin, 2023. Rhone Valley, France
6. Cornas Granit 30, Vincent Paris, 2022. Rhone Valley, France
7. Côtes du Rhône Réserve, Famille Perrin, 2022. Rhone Valley France
8. Touriga Nacional, Quinta do Vallado, 2019. Douro, Portugal
9. Zwiegelt, Bergh, 2021. Niederösterreich, Austria
10. Barbera d’Alba Trevie, Vietti, 2022. Piedmont, Italy
11. Beaujolais Villages “Le Perreon”, Domaine de la Madone, 2023. Beaujolais, France
12. Xinomavro “Hedgehog”, Alpha Estate, 2022. Amyndeon, Greece

Paper 3: The Mixed Paper

1. Riesling Sekt Extra Dry, Dr. Loosen, NV. Mosel, Germany
2. Riesling, Framingham, 2023. Marlborough, New Zealand
3. Riesling Beerenauslese, Dr. Loosen, 2018. Mosel, Germany
4. Cava Brut Reserva “Essential Púrpura, Juvé y Camps, 2021. Penedès, Spain
5. La Bruja, Comando G, 2022. Valle del Tiétar, Sierra de Gredos, Spain
6. Oloroso VORS 30 Years, Bodegas Tradición, NV. Jerez, Spain
7. Côte de Provence Cru Classé, Chateau Galoupet, 2023. Provence, France
8. Pinot Gris Spiegel Grand Cru, Schlumberger, 2022. Alsace, France
9. Tokaji Édes Szamorodni, István Szepsy, 2017. Tokaji, Hungary
10. Sercial 10 Years Old, Henriques & Henriques, NV. Madeira, Portugal
11. Fine Ruby Port, Cockburns, NV. Douro, Portugal
12. 40 Year Tawny Port, Kopke, NV. Douro, Portugal

Theory papers

Paper 1 (Viticulture)

Three questions to be answered, one from Section A and two from Section B.

Section A

1. How effectively can vineyard pests and diseases be controlled without using agrochemicals?
2. “Bacterial and phytoplasma diseases are the greatest threats to vine health today.” Discuss.

Section B

3. How can artificial intelligence (‘AI’) be used in viticulture to improve the quality of wine grapes?
4. To what extent does soil management affect the quality of wine grapes?
5. How do changing rainfall and wind patterns affect viticulture?
6. To what extent can rootstocks be used to mitigate the effects of climate change?

Paper 2 (Vinification)

Comment: This year’s Paper Two questions all seem quite dry and technical.
Three questions to be answered, one from Section A and two from Section B.

Section A

1. Critically assess the key techniques a winemaker can use to enhance complexity and texture in bottle-fermented sparkling wines.
2. Evaluate the different winemaking techniques that can enhance a wine’s potential for extended bottle ageing.

Section B

3. Examine the roles of bacteria in winemaking. How can bacteria be managed to achieve desired outcomes?
4. Evaluate prevention and correction strategies for each of the following issues:
   1. 0.9g/L volatile acidity in a Chablis wine (pH3.2, 12.5% ABV) intended for lees ageing;
   2. Strong reductive aromas post-malolactic fermentation in a premium Barossa Shiraz
      (pH 3.8, 15% ABV) destined for 24-month oak ageing;
   3. 180mg/L total sulphur dioxide in a Bordeaux blend (pH 3.6, 13.5% ABV) pre-bottling.
5. Considering a diversity of wine styles, critically evaluate the importance of blending to achieve consistency.
6. Assess how pH influences winemaking decisions at key stages from grape to finished wine.

Paper 3 (Handling of wine)

Answer two of the following four questions.

1. As a producer of a dry white wine that may age in bottle for up to five years, you are considering changing from natural cork stoppers to an alternative closure. What technical factors should you consider?
2. Write concise notes on three of the following:
   1. Mousiness.
   2. Light strike in bottled wine.
   3. Elevated volatile acidity in bottled wine.
   4. Management of a tank of rosé with free sulphur dioxide well above its ideal level.
3. What are the key factors to consider when deciding whether to cold stabilise white and red wines?
   What quality control measures are required to test that wine is stable?
4. Why are fining agents used in winemaking? For each of the following wines, explain which factors might influence the choice of fining agent used:
   1. Entry-level South African Chenin Blanc;
   2. DOCG Barolo; and
   3. Vegan AOC Côtes de Provence rosé.

Paper 4 (The business of wine)

Three questions to be answered, one from Section A and two from Section B.

Section A

1. How has Champagne maintained its primacy in the world of sparkling wine?
2. Do sustainability initiatives inevitably compromise profitability?

Section B

3.  How can the wine industry best address the issues of overproduction and falling
   consumption?
4.  To what extent can government wine monopolies benefit producers, retailers and
   consumers?
5. Wineries are increasingly selling direct to consumers. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of this approach compared to other routes to market.
6. Discuss the evolution of the négociant business format in Burgundy over the last 15 years, explaining the contributing factors. Are current conditions financially sustainable?

Paper 5 (Contemporary issues)

Two questions to be answered, one from Section A and one from Section B.

Section A

1. What will be the likely impact on the global wine industry if health warnings about cancer risks become increasingly mandatory on wine labels? Discuss the implications of such changes for producers, marketers and consumers.
2. How is the global wine industry adapting to changing societal attitudes towards alcohol consumption, and how should it respond to the challenges and opportunities these changes present?

Section B

3. You are tasked with creating a wine blend that represents the essence of humanity’s wine culture. Which grapes or regions would you include, and which winemaking style and packaging would you use, and why?
4. Analyse the major ethical concerns in the production of wine.
5. To what extent does wine’s cultural heritage remain relevant to younger consumers around the globe?